The coexistence of equipment of different technologies and the inadequacy of the installations favors the emission of electromagnetic energy and often causes. The Universe, Cosmos, Galaxies, Space, Black Holes, Earth, Planets, Moon, Stars, Sun Solar System. In topology and related branches of mathematics, a topological space may be defined as a set of points, along with a set of neighbourhoods for each point, satisfying. General topology Wikipedia. In mathematics, general topology is the branch of topology that deals with the basic set theoretic definitions and constructions used in topology. It is the foundation of most other branches of topology, including differential topology, geometric topology, and algebraic topology. Another name for general topology is point set topology. The fundamental concepts in point set topology are continuity, compactness, and connectedness Continuous functions, intuitively, take nearby points to nearby points. Compact sets are those that can be covered by finitely many sets of arbitrarily small size. Connected sets are sets that cannot be divided into two pieces that are far apart. The words nearby, arbitrarily small, and far apart can all be made precise by using open sets. If we change the definition of open set, we change what continuous functions, compact sets, and connected sets are. Each choice of definition for open set is called a topology. Basic Topology Armstrong Pdf' title='Basic Topology Armstrong Pdf' />A set with a topology is called a topological space. Metric spaces are an important class of topological spaces where a real, non negative distance, also called a metric, can be defined on pairs of points in the set. Having a metric simplifies many proofs, and many of the most common topological spaces are metric spaces. HistoryeditGeneral topology grew out of a number of areas, most importantly the following General topology assumed its present form around 1. Basic Topology Armstrong Pdf' title='Basic Topology Armstrong Pdf' />It captures, one might say, almost everything in the intuition of continuity, in a technically adequate form that can be applied in any area of mathematics. A topology on a seteditLet X be a set and let be a family of subsets of X. Then is called a topology on X if 12Both the empty set and X are elements of Any union of elements of is an element of Any intersection of finitely many elements of is an element of If is a topology on X, then the pair X, is called a topological space. RSCpubs.ePlatform.Service.FreeContent.ImageService.svc/ImageService/Articleimage/2015/DT/c5dt00753d/c5dt00753d-f2_hi-res.gif' alt='Basic Topology Armstrong Pdf' title='Basic Topology Armstrong Pdf' />. In mathematics, general topology is the branch of topology that deals with the basic settheoretic definitions and constructions used in topology. The notation X may be used to denote a set X endowed with the particular topology. The members of are called open sets in X. A subset of X is said to be closed if its complement is in i. A subset of X may be open, closed, both clopen set, or neither. Adobe Flash Kiosk Mode. The empty set and X itself are always both closed and open. Basis for a topologyeditA base or basis B for a topological space. X with topology. T is a collection of open sets in T such that every open set in T can be written as a union of elements of B. We say that the base generates the topology T. Bases are useful because many properties of topologies can be reduced to statements about a base that generates that topologyand because many topologies are most easily defined in terms of a base that generates them. Subspace and quotienteditEvery subset of a topological space can be given the subspace topology in which the open sets are the intersections of the open sets of the larger space with the subset. For any indexed family of topological spaces, the product can be given the product topology, which is generated by the inverse images of open sets of the factors under the projection mappings. For example, in finite products, a basis for the product topology consists of all products of open sets. For infinite products, there is the additional requirement that in a basic open set, all but finitely many of its projections are the entire space. A quotient space is defined as follows if X is a topological space and Y is a set, and if f  X Y is a surjectivefunction, then the quotient topology on Y is the collection of subsets of Y that have open inverse images under f. In other words, the quotient topology is the finest topology on Y for which f is continuous. A common example of a quotient topology is when an equivalence relation is defined on the topological space X. The map f is then the natural projection onto the set of equivalence classes. Examples of topological spaceseditA given set may have many different topologies. If a set is given a different topology, it is viewed as a different topological space. Any set can be given the discrete topology in which every subset is open. The only convergent sequences or nets in this topology are those that are eventually constant. Also, any set can be given the trivial topology also called the indiscrete topology, in which only the empty set and the whole space are open. Every sequence and net in this topology converges to every point of the space. This example shows that in general topological spaces, limits of sequences need not be unique. However, often topological spaces must be Hausdorff spaces where limit points are unique. There are many ways to define a topology on R, the set of real numbers. The standard topology on R is generated by the open intervals. The set of all open intervals forms a base or basis for the topology, meaning that every open set is a union of some collection of sets from the base. In particular, this means that a set is open if there exists an open interval of non zero radius about every point in the set. More generally, the Euclidean spaces. Rn can be given a topology. In the usual topology on Rn the basic open sets are the open balls. Similarly, C, the set of complex numbers, and Cn have a standard topology in which the basic open sets are open balls. Every metric space can be given a metric topology, in which the basic open sets are open balls defined by the metric. This is the standard topology on any normed vector space. On a finite dimensional vector space this topology is the same for all norms. Many sets of linear operators in functional analysis are endowed with topologies that are defined by specifying when a particular sequence of functions converges to the zero function. Any local field has a topology native to it, and this can be extended to vector spaces over that field. Every manifold has a natural topology since it is locally Euclidean. Similarly, every simplex and every simplicial complex inherits a natural topology from Rn. The Zariski topology is defined algebraically on the spectrum of a ring or an algebraic variety. On Rn or Cn, the closed sets of the Zariski topology are the solution sets of systems of polynomial equations. A linear graph has a natural topology that generalises many of the geometric aspects of graphs with vertices and edges. The Sierpiski space is the simplest non discrete topological space. It has important relations to the theory of computation and semantics. There exist numerous topologies on any given finite set. Such spaces are called finite topological spaces. Finite spaces are sometimes used to provide examples or counterexamples to conjectures about topological spaces in general. Any set can be given the cofinite topology in which the open sets are the empty set and the sets whose complement is finite. This is the smallest T1 topology on any infinite set. Any set can be given the cocountable topology, in which a set is defined as open if it is either empty or its complement is countable. When the set is uncountable, this topology serves as a counterexample in many situations. The real line can also be given the lower limit topology. Here, the basic open sets are the half open intervals a, b. This topology on R is strictly finer than the Euclidean topology defined above a sequence converges to a point in this topology if and only if it converges from above in the Euclidean topology. This example shows that a set may have many distinct topologies defined on it.